Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

Bartal, G., Sailer, A. M., & Vano, E. (2018). Should we keep the lead in the aprons? Techniques in Vascular and Interventional Radiology, 21(1), 2–6. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.tvir.2017.12.002

Benjamin, J. L., & Meisinger, Q. C. (2018). Ergonomics in the development and prevention of musculoskeletal injury in interventional radiologists. Techniques in Vascular and Interventional Radiology, 21(1), 16–20. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.tvir.2017.12.004

Dixon, R. G., Khiatani, V., Statler, J. D., Benenati, J. F., & Sze, D. Y. (2017). Society of Interventional Radiology: Occupational back and neck pain and the interventional radiologist. Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology, 28(2), 195–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvir.2016.10.017

Fetterly, K. A., Magnuson, D. J., Tannahill, G. M., Hindal, M. D., & Mathew, V. (2011). Effective use of radiation shields to minimize operator dose during invasive cardiology procedures. JACC: Cardiovascular Interventions, 4(10), 1133–1139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcin.2011.05.027

Goldstein, J. A., Balter, S., Cowley, M., Hodgson, J., & Klein, L. W. (2004). Occupational hazards of interventional cardiologists: prevalence of orthopedic health problems in contemporary practice. Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions, 63(4), 407–411. https://doi.org/10.1002/ccd.20201

Kim, K. P., Miller, D. L., Berrington de González, A., Balter, S., Kleinerman, R. A., Ostroumova, E., Simon, S. L., & Bouville, A. (2012). Occupational radiation doses to operators performing fluoroscopically-guided procedures. Health Physics, 103(1), 80–99. https://doi.org/10.1097/HP.0b013e31824dae76

Kitahara, C. M., Linet, M. S., Balter, S., Miller, D. L., Rajaraman, P., & Berrington de González, A. (2017). Occupational radiation exposure and deaths from malignant intracranial neoplasms of the brain and CNS in U.S. Radiologic Technologists, 1983–2012. American Journal of Roentgenology, 208(6), 1278–1284. https://doi.org/10.2214/AJR.16.16964

Klein, L. W., Tra, Y., Garratt, K. N., Powell, W., Lopez-Cruz, G., Chambers, C. E., Dehmer, G. J., & Weintraub, W. S. (2015). Occupational health hazards of interventional cardiologists in the current decade: results of the 2014 SCAI membership survey. Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions, 86(5), 913–924. https://doi.org/10.1002/ccd.26093

Kuon, E., Glaser, C., & Dahm, J. B. (2003). Effective techniques for reduction of radiation dose to the staff and patient during cardiac catheterizations. Journal of Interventional Cardiology, 16(5), 423–429. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-8183.2003.01027.x

Lichliter, A., Weir, V., Heithaus, R. E., Hevezi, J. M., & Verdini, T. J. (2017). Clinical evaluation of protective garments with respect to garment characteristics and manufacturer label information. Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology, 28(1), 148–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvir.2016.09.027

Little, M. P., Wakeford, R., Tawn, E. J., Bouffler, S. D., & de González, A. B. (2009). Risks associated with low doses and low dose rates of ionizing radiation: why linearity may be (almost) the best we can do. Radiology, 251(1), 6–12. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2511081686

Machado, C. N., Santos, J. P., Oliveira, R. M., & Souza, T. M. (2025). Musculoskeletal disorders in interventional radiology workers. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 26, 91. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-025-09134-5

Miller, D. L., Vano, E., Bartal, G., Balter, S., Dixon, R., Padilla, A., Rudin, S., Schueler, B. A., Cardella, J. F., Sacks, D., & CIRSE and SIR Joint Guideline Writing Group. (2010). Occupational radiation protection in interventional radiology: a joint guideline of the Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiology Society of Europe and the Society of Interventional Radiology. Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology, 21(5), 607–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvir.2010.01.007

Miller, D. L., Vano, E., Balter, S., Dixon, R., Padilla, A., Rudin, S., Schueler, B. A., Cardella, J. F., Sacks, D., & CIRSE and SIR Joint Guideline Writing Group. (2026). Occupational protection in interventional radiology: A joint guideline of CIRSE and SIR. Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiology, 49, 716–733. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00270-025-04195-4

Rees, C. R., & Duncan, B. W. C. (2018). Get the lead off our backs! Techniques in Vascular and Interventional Radiology, 21(1), 7–15. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.tvir.2017.12.003

Schueler, B. A. (2010). Operator shielding: how and why. Techniques in Vascular and Interventional Radiology, 13(3), 167–171. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.tvir.2010.03.005

Shortt, C. P., Al-Hashimi, H., Malone, L., & Lee, M. J. (2007). Staff radiation doses to the lower extremities in interventional radiology. Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiology, 30(6), 1206–1209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00270-007-9071-0

Reports & Books

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. (2011). Radiation dose management for fluoroscopically-guided interventional medical procedures (NCRP Report No. 168). NCRP. https://ncrponline.org/shop/reports/report-no-168/

National Research Council. (2006). Health risks from exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/11340

Online Sources

MedSafe. (n.d.). Disposal methods for X-ray lead aprons and dental lead foils. https://medsafe.com/compliance-topics/disposal-methods-for-x-ray-lead-aprons-and-dental-lead-foils/

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Lead: Protect your family from exposures to lead. https://www.epa.gov/lead

Systematic Review

Comparative analysis of effectiveness of traditional lead aprons versus newer generation lead-free aprons in radiation protection. (2025). Cureus. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12005659/