Pediatric Brain MRI Protocol: Sedation, Ultra-Fast Sequences & Clinical Mastery

1. Introduction

The pediatric brain MRI protocol represents one of the most technically demanding and clinically consequential acquisitions in modern neuroradiology. Unlike adult neuroimaging, where patient cooperation is generally assured, pediatric examinations require a sophisticated synthesis of ultra-fast pulse sequences, stringent sedation protocols, and age-specific anatomical knowledge. The developing brain undergoes dramatic structural and myelination changes during the first two years of life, creating a dynamic imaging landscape that differs profoundly from adult neuroparenchyma. Mastering this protocol demands that radiographers adapt every parameter—from repetition times to receiver bandwidths—to account for smaller body habitus, elevated water content, and the ever-present threat of motion-induced image degradation.

For radiologists, interpreting pediatric neuroimaging requires a nuanced understanding of normal developmental milestones. What appears pathological in an adult brain may represent entirely normal myelination progression in a six-month-old infant. Conversely, subtle findings such as restricted diffusion in the posterior limb of the internal capsule or early germinal matrix hemorrhage can herald devastating neurological outcomes if not recognized immediately. The pediatric brain MRI protocol serves as the primary diagnostic gateway for evaluating hypoxic-ischemic injury, congenital anomalies, metabolic disorders, posterior fossa tumors, and abusive head trauma.

The technical execution of this protocol relies heavily on sequence innovations designed to outpace patient motion. Single-shot half-Fourier acquisition turbo spin-echo (HASTE) or single-shot fast spin-echo (SSFSE) sequences can acquire an entire brain slice in less than one second, effectively freezing voluntary and involuntary motion. When combined with radial k-space filling techniques such as PROPELLER or BLADE, these sequences transform catastrophic motion artifacts into manageable, uniform blurring that rarely compromises diagnostic interpretation. Furthermore, the advent of quiet MRI sequences has reduced acoustic noise levels from deafening 110 dB gradients to tolerable thresholds below 70 dB, minimizing the need for deep sedation in some cooperative children and reducing the risk of hearing damage in all pediatric patients.

2. Anatomy

An intricate understanding of pediatric neuroanatomy is essential for tailoring the brain MRI protocol, ensuring accurate slice positioning, and recognizing subtle pathological deviations from normal developmental milestones. The neonatal and infant brain is broadly divided into the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem, each presenting unique imaging characteristics, susceptibilities, and age-dependent contrast patterns that evolve rapidly during the first twenty-four months of life.

Gross Cerebral Anatomy and Developmental Milestones

The pediatric cerebral cortex undergoes rapid gyral and sulcal maturation during the third trimester and early postnatal period. Premature infants exhibit a smooth cortical surface with minimal opercularization, while term neonates display an evolving pattern of sulcation that continues through the second year of life. High-resolution three-dimensional T₁-weighted sequences are essential for evaluating cortical malformations such as lissencephaly, pachygyria, and polymicrogyria. The frontal lobes, responsible for emerging executive functions and motor planning, require thin-section imaging to detect subtle cortical dysplasias that may serve as epileptogenic foci. The temporal lobes, housing the hippocampi and limbic structures, are particularly vulnerable to hypoxic-ischemic insult in the perinatal period and demand coronal high-resolution T₂-weighted imaging for adequate assessment.

Gray-white matter differentiation in neonates is reversed compared to adults: unmyelinated white matter appears hyperintense on T₁-weighted images and hypointense on T₂-weighted images relative to cortical gray matter. This pattern gradually reverses as myelination progresses in a predictable caudal-to-rostral, central-to-peripheral pattern. By approximately twelve months of age, the T₁ pattern resembles adult contrast, while the T₂ pattern may not fully mature until eighteen to twenty-four months. Failure to recognize this normal developmental trajectory leads to frequent misinterpretation of unmyelinated white matter as pathological edema or demyelination.

Ventricular System and CSF Spaces in Infants

The ventricular system in neonates and infants differs from adults in both proportion and configuration. The lateral ventricles appear relatively larger in premature infants, a finding that must be distinguished from true hydrocephalus. The trigone and occipital horns are particularly prominent and can be misinterpreted as ventriculomegaly by those unfamiliar with normal pediatric anatomy. The cavum septum pellucidum and cavum vergae, frequently present in neonates, represent normal developmental variants that should not be mistaken for cystic pathology. Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) sequences must be carefully optimized in pediatric patients because the T₁ relaxation time of CSF in infants differs slightly from adults, and incomplete myelination alters the gray-white matter contrast against which periventricular pathology is judged.

The subarachnoid spaces over the frontal lobes are physiologically enlarged in infancy, a benign finding known as benign external hydrocephalus or benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces. This must never be mistaken for cerebral atrophy or non-accidental trauma. Accurate measurement of the extra-axial fluid width, correlation with head circumference percentiles, and recognition of the normal interdigitation of cortical veins within the enlarged subarachnoid space are critical interpretive skills for the pediatric neuroradiologist.

Brainstem, Cerebellum, and Posterior Fossa

The posterior fossa in children hosts a distinct spectrum of pathologies compared to adults. The cerebellar hemispheres and vermis are common sites for embryonal tumors such as medulloblastoma and pilocytic astrocytoma. The brainstem, comprising the midbrain, pons, and medulla, requires sagittal T₁-weighted imaging to evaluate the corpus callosum, aqueduct of Sylvius, and fourth ventricle. The craniocervical junction must be carefully assessed for Chiari malformations, which may present with syrinx formation or brainstem compression. In neonates, the posterior fossa is particularly susceptible to magnetic susceptibility artifacts from the adjacent petrous temporal bones and mastoid air cells, necessitating high-bandwidth sequences and careful shimming to preserve diagnostic image quality in this critical region.

3. MR Tissue Relaxation Values

Understanding tissue relaxation is the bedrock of sequence parameter selection in pediatric neuroimaging. The developing brain exhibits markedly different relaxation characteristics compared to adult tissue due to elevated water content, incomplete myelination, and higher cellular density. Longitudinal relaxation time (T₁) and transverse relaxation time (T₂) dictate image contrast and evolve rapidly during the first twenty-four months of life. These values differ significantly based on the static magnetic field strength (B₀) and the patient’s gestational age at examination.

Note: T₁ values in neonatal brain tissue are significantly prolonged compared to adults due to incomplete myelination and higher free water content. As myelination progresses, white matter T₁ values shorten dramatically, approaching adult values by approximately twenty-four months of age. T₂ values similarly evolve, with unmyelinated white matter appearing relatively hyperintense compared to mature adult white matter.

4. Scanning Technique

A rigorous, reproducible scanning methodology guarantees diagnostic consistency in pediatric neuroimaging, where motion, sedation, and physiological vulnerability create unique operational challenges. The following ten steps comprise the gold-standard pediatric brain MRI protocol for neonates, infants, and young children.

1. Patient Screening, Safety, and Sedation Preparation: Pediatric MRI safety screening extends beyond ferromagnetic detection to include comprehensive anesthesia evaluation. Verify fasting status according to institutional guidelines—typically six hours for solids and two hours for clear liquids in infants. Confirm the absence of contraindicated implants, which in children may include ventriculoperitoneal shunt components, cochlear implants, or cardiac pacemakers. Position the patient supine in a dedicated pediatric head coil or, for neonates, a specialized neonatal head coil or incubator-compatible coil. Immobilization is paramount: utilize vacuum-bead immobilization bags, soft foam padding, and Velcro straps designed for pediatric anatomy. Apply mandatory hearing protection—insert earplugs or neonatal earmuffs—to prevent acoustic injury from gradient noise that can exceed 110 dB in conventional sequences. Ensure continuous physiological monitoring including pulse oximetry, electrocardiography, and capnography when sedation or general anesthesia is employed. Maintain normothermia using warming blankets, as infants are particularly vulnerable to hypothermia in the cold MRI environment.
2. Isocenter Positioning and Coil Optimization: Align the laser crosshairs precisely at the glabella or nasion, adjusting for the relatively prominent frontal bones and occiput of the infant skull. For neonates, the isocenter may need slight caudal adjustment to ensure the posterior fossa and craniocervical junction are centered within the homogeneous region of the magnetic field. Select the highest-density multi-channel pediatric head coil available—preferably 16-channel or 32-channel pediatric-specific arrays rather than adult coils that leave significant dead space and degrade signal-to-noise ratio. Ensure the coil elements are in direct contact with the scalp without pressure points that could compromise skin perfusion. For very small infants, consider using a knee coil or flexible coil array wrapped around the head to achieve better fill factor and signal reception.
3. Three-Plane Localizer (Scout): Acquire ultra-fast steady-state gradient-echo localizer sequences in axial, sagittal, and coronal planes. In pediatric patients, these scouts should be acquired with the shortest possible acquisition time—often less than ten seconds total—to minimize motion opportunity and reduce acoustic exposure. The localizer establishes the geometric framework for all subsequent high-resolution blocks and allows immediate verification of head position, neck flexion, and the relationship of the brain to the coil sensitivity profile. Review the scout for unexpected findings such as massive hydrocephalus, extracranial collections, or gross structural anomalies that may require immediate protocol modification.
4. Axial Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI): Perform single-shot echo-planar imaging (SS-EPI) with b-values of 0 and 1000 s/mm². In neonates and infants, consider adding an intermediate b-value of 500 s/mm² to improve signal-to-noise ratio in the relatively immature brain. DWI is the most sensitive sequence for detecting acute hypoxic-ischemic injury, with restricted diffusion appearing within hours of the insult—far earlier than conventional T₁ or T₂ changes. Always generate and review the Apparent Diffusion Coefficient (ADC) map to confirm true restricted diffusion versus T₂ shine-through, which is particularly common in neonates due to the inherently high T₂ signal of unmyelinated white matter. Ensure adequate field mapping or parallel imaging calibration to minimize geometric distortion in the posterior fossa, where susceptibility artifacts from the skull base can be pronounced.
5. Axial T₂-Weighted Ultra-Fast Single-Shot Sequences: Acquire axial T₂-weighted images using single-shot half-Fourier acquisition turbo spin-echo (HASTE) or single-shot fast spin-echo (SSFSE) sequences. These sequences can freeze motion by acquiring all k-space data for a single slice in less than one second, making them ideal for sedated or non-compliant pediatric patients. Align slices parallel to the anterior commissure-posterior commissure (AC-PC) line. Ensure anatomical coverage from the foramen magnum to the vertex. While HASTE sequences sacrifice some T₂ contrast compared to conventional turbo spin-echo, the diagnostic quality is generally excellent for detecting major structural abnormalities, hydrocephalus, and mass lesions. For older cooperative children, conventional T₂ turbo spin-echo may be substituted if motion is not a concern.
6. Axial and Coronal T₂ FLAIR: Set the Inversion Time (TI) to null CSF signal, typically approximately 2000 ms at 1.5T and 2500 ms at 3.0T, though neonatal CSF may require slight adjustment due to differing protein content and T₁ relaxation. The coronal plane is particularly valuable for detecting hippocampal sclerosis, focal cortical dysplasias, and hypoxic-ischemic changes in the periventricular white matter. In pediatric patients, FLAIR is less sensitive than in adults for detecting white matter lesions in the first six months of life because incomplete myelination reduces the contrast between abnormal and normal white matter. However, after twelve months of age, FLAIR becomes increasingly critical for evaluating demyelinating disease, infection, and periventricular leukomalacia.
7. Axial Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging (SWI) or T₂* Gradient Echo: Exploit the paramagnetic properties of blood breakdown products to detect hemorrhage. This sequence is mandatory for evaluating germinal matrix hemorrhage in premature infants, traumatic microhemorrhages in abusive head trauma, and cavernous malformations. SWI is highly sensitive to deoxyhemoglobin and hemosiderin, producing pronounced signal loss or “blooming artifact” at sites of hemorrhage. In neonates, be aware that fetal hemoglobin has slightly different magnetic properties than adult hemoglobin, though this rarely affects clinical interpretation. Keep acquisition times short by using reduced slice resolution or parallel imaging to minimize the impact of motion.
8. Sagittal T₁-Weighted Three-Dimensional Acquisition: Acquire high-resolution sagittal T₁-weighted data using volumetric sequences such as magnetization-prepared rapid gradient-echo (MPRAGE) or sampling perfection with application-optimized contrasts using different flip angle evolution (SPACE). These 3D isotropic acquisitions allow multiplanar reformations with sub-millimeter resolution, critical for evaluating midline structures including the corpus callosum, pituitary gland, brainstem, and vermian anatomy. In neonates, T₁-weighted images provide excellent contrast between unmyelinated white matter and cortical gray matter. Utilize quiet sequence variants where available to reduce acoustic noise and the associated need for deeper sedation.
9. Phase-Encoding Direction Optimization and Flow Compensation: Swap phase and frequency axes to direct flow and motion artifacts away from critical regions. In pediatric patients, pulsatile flow from the superior sagittal sinus and carotid arteries can produce severe ghosting across the frontal and temporal lobes. Direct phase encoding anterior-to-posterior or right-to-left based on the primary region of interest. Apply spatial saturation bands superior and inferior to the imaging volume to suppress CSF pulsation artifacts, particularly in the posterior fossa where flow through the aqueduct and fourth ventricle can create confusing ghosting. Consider flow compensation gradients when evaluating the craniocervical junction.
10. Quality Assurance, Vetting, and Sedation Recovery Coordination: The operating radiographer must review all images at the console prior to patient discharge from the MRI suite. Verify adequate signal-to-noise ratio, complete anatomical coverage from the posterior fossa to the vertex, and the absence of motion-induced ghosting that could obscure the cortex or basal ganglia. Confirm that the patient meets institutional criteria for safe transfer to the post-anesthesia care unit or recovery area. Document all sequence parameters, sedation medications, vital signs, and any adverse events in the radiology information system. Communicate immediately with the supervising radiologist if acute findings such as hemorrhage, mass effect, or infarction are identified, as these may trigger urgent neurosurgical or neonatal intensive care consultation.

5. Contrast Media Protocol

While the non-contrast pediatric brain MRI protocol forms the foundation of most examinations, contrast-enhanced sequences are frequently necessary for evaluating tumors, infection, and inflammatory conditions. Pediatric dosing follows strict weight-based calculations: 0.1 mmol/kg of gadolinium-based contrast agent (GBCA), typically resulting in a total volume of 10–15 mL for most children. Administer at a reduced flow rate of 1.5 mL/s through a peripheral intravenous catheter, followed by a 100 mL saline chaser at 1.5 mL/s. The slower injection rate accommodates smaller-caliber pediatric IV access and reduces the risk of extravasation in fragile neonatal vessels.

When executing this protocol, it is the radiographer’s responsibility to confirm the clinical indication strictly matches the requisition and that the child has adequate renal function. In neonates, consider delaying non-urgent contrast studies until the infant is hemodynamically stable and renal maturity is sufficient. The injector line must be physically primed with saline and free of air bubbles to prevent catastrophic air embolism in small pediatric circulatory volumes.

6. Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)

Radiofrequency (RF) pulses deposit energy into patient tissues, measured as Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) in Watts per kilogram (W/kg). Pediatric patients are more vulnerable to RF heating due to smaller body mass, thinner subcutaneous fat, and reduced thermoregulatory capacity. MRI systems enforce strict physiological limits to prevent core body temperature elevation, and many institutions apply conservative SAR thresholds for neonates and infants that fall below standard regulatory limits.

5 Evidence-Based Dose Reduction Strategies

1. Reduce Flip Angles: Decreasing the refocusing pulse in Fast Spin Echo (TSE/FSE) sequences from 180° to 120°–140° drastically cuts RF energy deposition while maintaining diagnostic T₂ weighting. In pediatric patients, this reduction is essential because their smaller thermal mass dissipates heat less efficiently than adults.
2. Increase Repetition Time (TR): Extending the gap between consecutive RF excitations allows more time for thermal dissipation, though this will incrementally extend the total scan time. In sedated children, modest time penalties are generally acceptable if they prevent dangerous heating.
3. Decrease Echo Train Length (ETL): Reducing the number of echoes acquired per TR cycle lowers the RF duty cycle, directly mitigating heating effects. This is particularly important when running multiple high-SAR sequences back-to-back in a pediatric protocol.
4. Employ Parallel Imaging: Using SENSE or GRAPPA reduces the required phase-encoding steps. Fewer RF pulses directly equate to significantly lower total energy deposition, making parallel imaging doubly beneficial in children by also shortening scan times.
5. Optimize Slice Number and Gap: Scanning only the necessary volume and ensuring a minimum 10% inter-slice gap prevents cross-talk and reduces the overall RF pulse requirement. In neonates, avoid adult head coverage templates that acquire unnecessary inferior slices through the skull base and upper cervical spine.

7. Top 10 Pathologies

The pediatric brain MRI protocol is uniquely sensitive to evaluating intrinsic parenchymal changes in the developing nervous system. The following ten pathologies represent the most frequent critical findings encountered in routine pediatric practice.

8. Pitfalls — Radiographers

The primary scanning pitfall on the pediatric brain MRI protocol is rapid patient motion causing non-diagnostic images despite sedation. Even deeply sedated children may exhibit involuntary movements, shivering, or airway-related motion that degrades conventional Cartesian sequences. Failure to proactively implement motion-resistant strategies results in repeated acquisitions, prolonged anesthesia exposure, and unnecessary radiation from fallback CT studies.

9. Pitfalls — Radiologists

The primary interpretation pitfall is misinterpreting normal developmental myelination patterns or benign enlarged subarachnoid spaces as pathological focal lesions or atrophy. The rapidly evolving appearance of the pediatric brain during the first two years of life creates a moving target that can trap even experienced neuroradiologists unfamiliar with developmental neuroanatomy.

10. Pitfalls — Non-Radiology Physicians

11. Pitfall Comparison Summary

12. AI & Automation

The integration of Artificial Intelligence into the pediatric brain MRI protocol is rapidly transforming clinical workflows in children’s hospitals and academic medical centers. Deep Learning-Based Image Reconstruction (DLBIR) utilizes advanced convolutional neural networks trained on high-resolution k-space data from pediatric populations. These algorithms denoise heavily undersampled images, allowing for dramatic scan time reductions without compromising diagnostic integrity. In motion-prone children, shorter scan times directly translate to fewer motion artifacts and reduced sedation requirements.

FDA-cleared and CE-marked AI tools now routinely perform automatic slice positioning optimized for pediatric anatomy. By instantly recognizing anatomical landmarks such as the AC-PC line, the corpus callosum, and the posterior fossa structures on the initial localizer, the AI prescribes the entire sequence geometry automatically. This eliminates operator variability, ensures perfect longitudinal reproducibility for follow-up scans, and cuts setup time by up to 40%. Furthermore, synthetic MRI (SyMRI) algorithms can now derive absolute T₁, T₂, and Proton Density quantitative maps from a single five-minute multidynamic acquisition, retrospectively generating any desired contrast weighting synthetically. This is particularly valuable in pediatrics, where minimizing the number of separate sequences reduces total scan time and anesthesia exposure.

13. Reducing Artefacts with Patients and Parameters

The most critical scanning parameters that impact image quality in pediatric neuroimaging include:

1. Spatial Resolution

Spatial resolution defines the ability to distinguish small details in an image.

• Matrix Size: Increasing the matrix size (frequency × phase) increases spatial resolution, but decreases SNR because the voxel (3D pixel) size becomes smaller. In pediatric imaging, higher matrices are often necessary to visualize small structures such as the hippocampi, cortical dysplasias, and cranial nerves, but the SNR penalty must be offset by using dedicated pediatric coils.
• Field of View (FOV): Reducing the FOV increases spatial resolution. However, smaller FOV results in smaller voxels and reduces SNR. In children, the FOV must be reduced to match the smaller head circumference to prevent wrap-around aliasing artifacts while maintaining adequate SNR.
• Slice Thickness: Thinner slices provide higher spatial resolution and reduce partial volume averaging, but significantly decrease SNR. Pediatric protocols should utilize slices of 3 mm or less for most sequences, with sub-millimeter isotropic voxels for 3D T₁ acquisitions.

2. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

SNR represents the strength of the diagnostic signal relative to inherent background noise. A high SNR produces crisp, clear images, whereas a low SNR looks grainy.

• Number of Averages (NEX/NSA): Increasing averages acquires data multiple times, which improves SNR. However, doubling the averages roughly doubles the scan time. In pediatric patients, increasing averages is rarely feasible due to motion constraints; instead, radiographers should rely on coil optimization and parallel imaging.
• Receiver Bandwidth: Decreasing the bandwidth limits the amount of noise recorded, boosting SNR. However, a lower bandwidth increases scan times and chemical shift artifacts. In pediatric imaging at 3.0T, higher bandwidths are often preferred to reduce chemical shift and susceptibility artifacts, accepting a modest SNR penalty.
• Coil Selection: Using dedicated, localized pediatric surface coils rather than adult coils captures much stronger signals and heavily improves SNR. The smaller fill factor and closer element proximity to pediatric anatomy dramatically enhance signal reception.

3. Image Contrast

Contrast determines how different tissues are distinguished from one another (e.g., highlighting gray matter vs. white matter vs. CSF).

• Repetition Time (TR): TR is the time between consecutive RF pulses. A short TR maximizes T₁ tissue contrast, while a long TR minimizes it. In pediatric T₁-weighted sequences, TR must be sufficiently long to account for the prolonged T₁ relaxation times of neonatal brain tissue.
• Echo Time (TE): TE is the time between the RF pulse and the peak of the echo signal. A short TE minimizes T₂ effects, and a long TE maximizes T₂ weighting, making fluid-filled areas appear very bright. In neonates, long TE sequences accentuate the high T₂ signal of unmyelinated white matter.
• Flip Angle: Controls the excitation of protons. Adjusting the flip angle changes tissue contrast and is especially critical in gradient echo sequences. Lower flip angles reduce SAR deposition, which is particularly beneficial in pediatric scanning.

4. Artifact Control

Artifacts are visual distortions or ghosting that degrade image quality.

• Phase Encoding Direction: Swapping the phase and frequency axes can shift motion-induced artifacts (like breathing or blood flow) away from the primary region of interest. In children, phase encoding should be directed away from the frontal lobes to minimize carotid pulsation ghosting.
• Flow Compensation / Gating: Utilizes physiological triggers (e.g., electrocardiogram or peripheral pulse) to minimize blurring and ghosting caused by pulsatile motion. While less commonly used in brain imaging, flow compensation gradients are valuable when evaluating the craniocervical junction or CSF dynamics.
• Parallel Imaging: Utilizes multiple coil elements simultaneously to reduce phase encoding steps, significantly cutting down scan time and reducing motion artifacts. In pediatrics, parallel imaging is not merely optional—it is essential for completing diagnostic studies before motion or sedation recovery intervenes.

14. Parallel Imaging Protocols and Parameters

Parallel imaging (such as SENSE, GRAPPA, or ASSET) is a vital tool for accelerating the pediatric brain MRI protocol. By utilizing the spatial sensitivities of a multi-channel pediatric receiver coil, the scanner can skip phase-encoding lines in k-space, reducing the overall acquisition time. However, this acceleration (defined by the Acceleration Factor, R) comes with an inherent penalty to the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), which drops proportionally to 1/√R. Furthermore, adjusting the Turbo Factor (Echo Train Length) changes how quickly k-space is filled. In pediatric patients, these trade-offs must be carefully balanced against the overriding priority of motion-free acquisition.

15. Conclusion

Mastering the pediatric brain MRI protocol requires an uncompromising dedication to physics optimization, anatomical precision, developmental neurobiology, and artifact mitigation. This acquisition stands as the primary investigative tool for acute neonatal encephalopathy, congenital malformations, posterior fossa tumors, and non-accidental trauma, relying purely on intrinsic tissue relaxation properties and ultra-fast sequence innovations to define pathology in a population that cannot cooperate with conventional scanning instructions. By meticulously applying evidence-based dose reduction strategies, leveraging advanced parallel imaging, implementing rigorous motion-correction frameworks, and maintaining a deep awareness of normal developmental milestones, radiographers and radiologists can consistently deliver diagnostic excellence in pediatric neuroradiology. Ultimately, the synthesis of standardized technical execution, pediatric-specific safety protocols, and profound clinical awareness ensures that the pediatric brain MRI protocol remains the indispensable foundation of modern child neuroimaging.

16. Further Reading

1. Pediatric MRI Sedation and Safety Guidelines: A Comprehensive Review
2. Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy: MRI Protocol and Interpretation
3. Posterior Fossa Tumor Imaging in Children: Medulloblastoma and Pilocytic Astrocytoma
4. MRI Motion Artifact Reduction: PROPELLER, BLADE, and Compressed Sensing
5. Educational Hub: Pediatric, Spinal & Neuroimaging Master Series

17. References